Introduction
Age or population group | Recommended daily allowance (μg) |
---|---|
Pre-school children (0–59 months) | 90 |
School children (6–12 years) | 120 |
Adolescents and adults (above 12 years) | 150 |
Pregnant and lactating women | 250 |
Iodine intake and absorption
Iodide transport in thyroid cells
Regulation of iodide transport
Thyroid conditions as they relate to iodide transport
Etiology | Conditions, drugs or environmental agents affecting this step in iodide transport | Manifestations |
---|---|---|
Deficient nutritional iodine intake | Iodine deficiency disorders |
All ages:
|
• Goiter | ||
Mother/fetus:
| ||
• Abortion | ||
• Stillbirth | ||
• Congenital anomalies | ||
• Perinatal mortality | ||
Newborn:
| ||
• Infant mortality | ||
• Cretinism with neurological deficits and mental retardation | ||
Child and adolescent:
| ||
• Growth retardation and delayed puberty | ||
Child, adolescent and adult:
| ||
• Impaired mental function | ||
• Hypothyroidism | ||
• Increased risk to develop iodide induced-hyperthyroidism and toxic nodular goiter after exposure to iodine | ||
Abnormal basal iodide uptake | NIS mutations (autosomal recessive) | Congenital hypothyroidism, typically with goiter. Iodide-trapping defect with little or no uptake of radioactive iodide both at the thyroid and salivary gland level |
Perchlorate, thiocyanate and nitrates | Increased risk of goiter development and hypothyroidism, specially in iodine deficient populations | |
Goitrogens (soy and other flavonoids, glucosinolates and cyanogenic glucosides) | Increased risk of goiter development and hypothyroidism in iodine deficient populations | |
Apical iodide efflux | Pendred syndrome. Mutations in the SLC26A4 gene (autosomal recessive) | Sensorineural hearing loss, variable phenotype of goiter and hypothyroidism and partial organification defect |
Congenital hypothyroidism with atrophic thyroid gland associated with SLC26A4 mutations (autosomal recessive) | Congenital hypothyroidism | |
Organification and coupling | Tg gene mutations (autosomal recessive) | Congenital hypothyroidism and/or variable degrees of goiter and hypothyroidism with low Tg levels |
TPO gene mutations (autosomal recessive) | Congenital hypothyroidism and/or variable degrees of goiter and hypothyroidism with partial or total organification defects | |
Mutations in DUOX2 or DUOXA2 (autosomal recessive or dominant) | Transient or permanent congenital hypothyroidism | |
Anti-thyroid medications (i.e. PTU, methimazole, carbimazole) | Medication-induced hypothyroidism | |
Recycling of iodide | Mutations in DEHAL1 (autosomal recessive) | Congenital hypothyroidism, goiter, increased MIT and DIT serum levels and severe urinary loss of MIT and DIT |
Thyroid hormone degradation exceeds thyroid synthetic capacity | Overexpression of D3 in hemangiomas and gastrointestinal stromal tumors | Consumptive hypothyroidism with elevated rT3 and resistance to treatment with physiological doses of levothyroxine |
Increased stimulation or constitutive activity of the TSHR or downstream pathways | TSHR stimulating immunoglobulins | Graves’ disease |
Transient congenital hyperthyroidism | ||
TSHR activating mutations | Sporadic congenital or autosomal dominant familial non-autoimmune hyperthyroidism (germline mutations) | |
Toxic adenomas (somatic mutations) | ||
Pregnancy | hCG-induced gestational hyperthyroidism | |
Somatic, activating mutations of Gsα | Toxic nodular hyperthyroidism and hyperthyroidism in McCune Albright syndrome | |
Decreased stimulation or inactivation of the TSHR or downstream pathways | Presence of TSHR blocking immunoglobulins | Hypothyroidism |
Inactivating mutations of the TSHR (autosomal recessive) | Resistance to TSH with overt or compensated hypothyroidism | |
Inactivating Gsα mutations | Hypothyroidism in the context of pseudohypoparathyroidism type Ia | |
Iodide mediated alterations in thyroid function | Iodine containing solutions | Transient hypothyroidism (Wolff-Chaikoff effect) |
In iodine deficiency: Hyperthyroidism (Jod-Basedow) | ||
Iodine containing contrast agents (iodine containing IV contrasts) | Transient hypothyroidism (Wolff-Chaikoff effect) | |
In iodine deficiency: Hyperthyroidism (Jod-Basedow) | ||
Amiodarone | Amiodarone induced thyrotoxicosis (AIT): type 1: iodine inducedthyrotoxicosis, Jod-Basedow type 2: thyroiditis | |
Amiodarone induced hypothyroidism (AMH); often associated with underlying autoimmune thyroid disease | ||
Other defects in thyroid hormone release | Lithium | Hypothyroidism due to decrease release of T4 |
Disorders of iodine intake (DII)
Population | Median urinary iodine (μg/L) | Iodine intake |
---|---|---|
School age children (older than 6 years old)
| <20 | Insufficient (severe) |
20-49 | Insufficient (moderate) | |
50-99 | Insufficient (mild) | |
100-199 | Adequate | |
200-299 | Above requirement | |
<300 | Excessive | |
Pregnant and lactating women | <150 | Insufficient |
150-249 | Adequate | |
250-499 | Above requirements | |
<500 | Excessive |
Disorders of iodide transport
Disorders of abnormal iodide transport regulation
Consumptive hypothyroidism
Drugs, diet and environmental agents affecting iodide transport and metabolism
Iodine as a tool for diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders
Radionuclide | Radioactive emissions (keV*) | Half-life | Clinical use |
---|---|---|---|
123
I
| γ 159 keV | 13.2 hours | Thyroid and whole body scanning |
131
I
| γ 364 keV | 8.09 days | Thyroid and whole body scanning |
β 637 keV | Treatment of Graves’ disease, toxic adenomas, thyroid cancer | ||
124
I
| β+ (positron emitter) γ 603 keV | 4.2 days | Whole body scanning Dosimetry |
99m
T
c
O
4
| γ 140 keV | 6 hours | Thyroid scanning |