Background
Methods
Conceptual framework
Study setting and study design
Measure of mental health status
Measure of parental style
Measure of parent’s relationship
Measure of income
Other variables
Variables | Wave 1 (aged 4–5 years) | Wave 2 (aged 6–7 years) | Wave 3 (aged 8–9 years) | Wave 4 (aged 10–11 years) | Wave 5 (aged 12–13 years) | Wave 6 (aged 14–15 years) | Wave 7 (aged 16–17 years) | Pooled |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | ||||||||
Dependent variable | ||||||||
Mental health | 9.34 | 7.9 | 7.46 | 7.94 | 7.45 | 7.11 | 7.24 | 7.78 |
Independent variables | ||||||||
Parenting style | ||||||||
Angry parenting | 2.22 | 2.13 | 2.15 | 2.16 | 2.15 | 2.08 | 1.96 | 1.58 |
Praise behavior | 3.79 | 3.61 | 3.72 | 3.68 | 3.61 | 3.63 | 3.67 | 3.67 |
Disapprove of behavior | 2.59 | 2.29 | 2.41 | 2.44 | 2.39 | 2.31 | 2.14 | 2.36 |
Angry when punishing | 2.62 | 2.31 | 2.44 | 2.51 | 2.41 | 2.24 | 2.06 | 2.37 |
Have problems managing | 1.75 | 1.47 | 1.53 | 1.62 | 1.62 | 1.58 | 1.56 | 1.59 |
Consistent parenting | 3.99 | 4.11 | 4.14 | 4.12 | 4.07 | 4.05 | 3.98 | 3.57 |
Make sure complete requests | 4.31 | 4.12 | 4.24 | 4.21 | 4.11 | 4.05 | 3.88 | 4.13 |
Punish study child | 3.88 | 3.79 | 4.12 | 3.97 | 3.89 | 3.81 | 3.52 | 3.85 |
Study children get away unpunished | 2.25 | 1.95 | 2.11 | 2.04 | 2.02 | 1.98 | 1.92 | 2.03 |
Study children get out of unpunished | 2.15 | 1.84 | 1.95 | 1.97 | 2.023 | 2.024 | 2.05 | 2.01 |
Study children ignore the punishment | 1.95 | 1.63 | 1.55 | 1.63 | 1.64 | 1.61 | 1.63 | 1.65 |
Inductive parenting | 4.17 | 4.14 | 4.05 | 4.07 | 3.95 | 3.77 | 3.21 | 3 |
Explain the corrections | 4.42 | 4.26 | 4.18 | 4.22 | 4.09 | 3.91 | 3.42 | 4.06 |
Reason when misbehaves | 4.26 | 4.12 | 4.21 | 4.23 | 4.13 | 3.93 | 3.31 | 4.02 |
Parents couple relationship | ||||||||
Argumentative relationship | 2.24 | 2.09 | 2.08 | 2.07 | 2.06 | 2.06 | 2.05 | 1.72 |
Disagreements re child-rearing | 2.37 | 2.26 | 2.35 | 2.37 | 2.34 | 2.38 | 2.36 | 2.34 |
Stressful conversations | 2.26 | 1.92 | 2.02 | 2.04 | 2.3 | 2.04 | 2.02 | 2.08 |
Arguments with partner | 2.67 | 2.37 | 2.38 | 2.42 | 2.39 | 2.39 | 2.36 | 2.42 |
Hostility with partner | 2.18 | 1.77 | 1.96 | 1.95 | 1.94 | 1.94 | 1.92 | 1.95 |
Happy couple relationship | ||||||||
Degree of happiness with a partner | 5.31 | 4.92 | 5.28 | 4.99 | 4.92 | 4.98 | 5.13 | 4.87 |
Household income | ||||||||
Lowest income (500 AUD or less per week) | 0.68 | 0.51 | 0.39 | 0.34 | 0.29 | 0.24 | 0.33 | 0.43 |
Lowest to medium (501–999 AUD per week) | 0.25 | 0.39 | 0.45 | 0.46 | 0.45 | 0.46 | 0.35 | 0.36 |
Medium to highest (1000–1999 AUD per week) | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.17 |
Highest (more than 2000 AUD per week) | 0.005 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.03 |
Mothers’ education status | ||||||||
Postgraduation | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.08 |
Undergraduate | 0.23 | 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.25 |
Certificate/Diploma | 0.69 | 0.67 | 0.66 | 0.65 | 0.63 | 0.63 | 0.61 | 0.65 |
Year 12 or below | 0.012 | 0.02 | 0.021 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 |
Mothers’ employment status | ||||||||
Full-time employed | 0.21 | 0.27 | 0.32 | 0.37 | 0.44 | 0.49 | 0.54 | 0.38 |
Part-time employed | 0.36 | 0.41 | 0.42 | 0.39 | 0.36 | 0.33 | 0.31 | 0.36 |
Unemployed | 0.42 | 0.33 | 0.26 | 0.23 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.25 |
Sociodemographic | ||||||||
Age in years | 0.26 | 0.39 | 0.35 | 0.42 | 0.50 | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.35 |
Gender | ||||||||
Male | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.50 |
Female | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.49 |
Areas of residence | ||||||||
Accessible city areas | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
Not accessible regional areas | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.04 |
Potential bias
Statistical analysis
Concentration index (CI)
Decomposition analysis
Decomposition of concentration index change
Results
Descriptive results
Regression results
Variables | Wave 1 | Wave 2 | Wave 3 | Wave 4 | Wave 5 | Wave 6 | Wave 7 | Pooled |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent variables | Co-eff (SE) | Co-eff (SE) | Co-eff (SE) | Co-eff (SE) | Co-eff (SE) | Co-eff (SE) | Co-eff (SE) | Co-eff (SE) |
Parenting style | ||||||||
Angry parenting | 3.017 (0.147)*** | 2.637 (0.137)*** | 2.944 (0.143)*** | 3.331 (0.143)*** | 3.129 (0.135)*** | 3.144 (0.133)*** | 2.447 (0.153)*** | 2.9 (0.053)*** |
Consistent parenting | − 1.488 (0.135)*** | − 1.268 (0.135)*** | − 1.541 (0.140)*** | − 1.140 (0.145)*** | − 1.001 (0.137)*** | − 1.179 (0.133)*** | − 1.184 (0.135)*** | − 1.286 (0.052)*** |
Inductive parenting | − 0.002 (0.133) | 0.407 (0.122)*** | 0.363 (0.131)** | 0.776 (0.124)*** | 0.719 (0.111)*** | 0.768 (0.099)*** | 0.628 (0.086)*** | 0.568 (0.039)*** |
Parents couple relationship | ||||||||
Argumentative relationship | 0.481 (0.184)** | 0.689 (0.141)*** | 0.489 (0.171)** | 0.790 (0.169)*** | 0.650 (0.161)*** | 0.490 (0.162)** | 0.371 (0.166)* | 0.613 (0.061)*** |
Happy couple relationship | 0.027 (0.106) | − 0.14 (0.060)* | − 0.081 (0.098) | − 0.063 (0.082) | − 0.010 (0.079) | − 0.019 (0.080) | − 0.137 (0.080)* | − 0.045 (0.030) |
Household income (ref: lowest income) | ||||||||
Lowest to medium (= 1) | − 1.056 (0.209)*** | − 0.586 (0.187)** | − 0.599 (0.186)** | − 0.803 (0.205)*** | − 0.466 (0.205)* | − 0.031 (0.198) | − 0.092 (0.223) | − 0.531 (0.076)*** |
Medium to highest (= 1) | − 1.134 (0.445)* | − 1.556 (0.330)*** | − 1.138 (0.290)*** | − 0.849 (0.291)** | − 0.511 (0.254)* | − 0.438 (0.241)* | − 0.606 (0.261)* | − 0.866 (0.104)*** |
Highest (= 1) | − 0.105 (1.240) | − 0.808 (0.871) | − 1.712 (0.687)* | − 1.431 (0.713)* | − 0.967 (0.555)* | 0.496 (0.492) | − 1.867 (0.485)*** | − 1.135 (0.227)*** |
Mother’s education status (ref: postgraduate) | ||||||||
Undergraduate (= 1) | 0.047 (0.421) | 0.073 (0.397) | − 0.449 (0.389) | − 0.327 (0.413) | 0.055 (0.369) | − 0.130 (0.357) | − 0.346 (0.382) | − 0.182 (0.147) |
Certificate/Diploma (= 1) | 1.211 (0.399)** | 0.952 (0.378)* | 0.541 (0.370) | 0.907 (0.392)* | 1.137 (0.349)** | 1.045 (0.338)** | 0.527 (0.358) | 0.858 (0.139)*** |
Year 12 or below (= 1) | 0.753 (0.838) | 0.954 (0.652) | 1.223 (0.657)* | 1.245 (0.757) | 0.580 (0.774) | 0.377 (0.723) | − 0.932 (0.720) | 0.537 (0.274)* |
Mother’s employment status (ref: full-time) | ||||||||
Part-time Employed (= 1) | − 0.572 (0.236)* | − 0.303 (0.207) | − 0.41822 (0. 196)* | − 0.422 (0.210)* | − 0.258 (0.198) | − 0.158 (0.191) | − 0.060 (0.212) | − 0.260 (0.078)*** |
Unemployed (= 1) | 0.26 (0.234) | − 0.027 (0.217) | 0.25337 (0.222) | 0.997 (0.240)*** | 0.860 (0.239)*** | 1.018 (0.228)*** | 1.350 (0.262)*** | 0.747 (0.088)*** |
Sociodemographic | ||||||||
Age in years | − 0.236 (0.190) | 0.265 (0.164) | − 0.054 (0.169) | − 0.034 (0.178) | − 0.110 (0.170) | − 0.113 (0.166) | 0.164 (0.182) | − 0.038 (0.070) |
Female (= 1) (ref: male) | − 1.070 (0.169)*** | − 1.323 (0.161)*** | − 1.279 (0.162)*** | − 1.285 (0.177)*** | − 1.125 (0.172)*** | − 0.208 (0.166) | 0.321 (0.183) | − 0.787 (0.065)*** |
Areas of residence (ref: accessible city areas) | ||||||||
Not accessible regional areas (= 1) | 0.428 (0.447) | 0.348 (0.416) | 0.166 (0.407) | 0.81 (0.44)* | 1.29 (0.431)** | 1.082 (0.441)** | 0.271 (0.483) | 0.703 (0.167)*** |
Decomposition of mental health inequality
Variables | Wave 1 (aged 4–5 years) | Wave 2 (aged 6–7 years | Wave 3 (aged 8–9 years | Wave 4 (aged 10–11 years | Wave 5 (aged 12–13 years | Wave 6 (aged 14–15 years | Wave 7 (aged 16–17 years | Pooled | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parenting style | |||||||||
Angry parenting | \(\eta\) | 0.717 | 0.711 | 0.848 | 0.906 | 0.903 | 0.922 | 0.662 | 0.589 |
\(CI\) | − 0.0121 | − 0.01 | − 0.012 | − 0.013 | − 0.017 | − 0.022 | − 0.025 | − 0.002 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0087 | − 0.009 | − 0.010 | − 0.012 | − 0.016 | − 0.021 | − 0.017 | − 0.0012 | |
Consistent parenting | \(\eta\) | − 0.636 | − 0.660 | − 0.855 | − 0.592 | − 0.547 | − 0.671 | − 0.651 | − 0.590 |
\(CI\) | 0.0148 | 0.01 | 0.009 | 0.015 | 0.013 | 0.008 | 0.013 | 0.002 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0094 | − 0.007 | − 0.008 | − 0.009 | − 0.007 | − 0.005 | − 0.009 | − 0.0010 | |
Inductive parenting | \(\eta\) | − 0.001 | 0.214 | 0.197 | 0.398 | 0.381 | 0.407 | 0.278 | 0.219 |
\(CI\) | − 0.0061 | − 0.01 | − 0.004 | − 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.000 | − 0.001 | |
\(Con\) | 0.0000 | − 0.002 | − 0.001 | − 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 | − 0.0001 | |
Parents couple relationship | |||||||||
Argumentative relationship | \(\eta\) | 0.115 | 0.182 | 0.136 | 0.206 | 0.180 | 0.142 | 0.105 | 0.134 |
\(CI\) | − 0.0115 | − 0.02 | − 0.020 | − 0.017 | − 0.019 | − 0.026 | − 0.017 | − 0.001 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0013 | − 0.003 | − 0.003 | − 0.003 | − 0.003 | − 0.004 | − 0.002 | − 0.0002 | |
Happy couple relationship | \(\eta\) | 0.015 | − 0.086 | − 0.057 | − 0.039 | − 0.007 | − 0.013 | − 0.097 | − 0.028 |
\(CI\) | 0.0034 | 0.04 | 0.002 | 0.016 | 0.015 | 0.019 | 0.008 | 0.000 | |
\(Con\) | 0.0001 | − 0.003 | 0.000 | − 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | − 0.001 | 0.0000 | |
Household income | |||||||||
Medium lowest (= 1) | \(\eta\) | − 0.029 | − 0.027 | − 0.034 | − 0.041 | − 0.024 | − 0.002 | − 0.004 | − 0.025 |
\(CI\) | 0.6675 | 0.49 | 0.345 | 0.239 | 0.182 | 0.100 | 0.136 | 0.049 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0194 | − 0.013 | − 0.012 | − 0.010 | − 0.004 | 0.000 | − 0.001 | − 0.0012 | |
Medium highest (= 1) | \(\eta\) | − 0.006 | − 0.017 | − 0.020 | − 0.018 | − 0.016 | − 0.016 | − 0.022 | − 0.019 |
\(CI\) | 0.9495 | 0.91 | 0.860 | 0.824 | 0.748 | 0.710 | 0.697 | 0.036 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0059 | − 0.016 | − 0.017 | − 0.015 | − 0.012 | − 0.011 | − 0.015 | − 0.0007 | |
Highest
(= 1) | \(\eta\) | 0.000 | − 0.001 | − 0.004 | − 0.004 | − 0.004 | 0.003 | − 0.013 | − 0.004 |
\(CI\) | 0.9954 | 0.99 | 0.985 | 0.983 | 0.973 | 0.967 | 0.958 | 0.012 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0001 | − 0.001 | − 0.004 | − 0.004 | − 0.004 | 0.003 | − 0.013 | 0.0000 | |
Mother’s education | |||||||||
Undergraduate (= 1) | \(\eta\) | 0.001 | 0.002 | − 0.015 | − 0.011 | 0.002 | − 0.005 | − 0.013 | − 0.006 |
\(CI\) | 0.1905 | 0.27 | 0.261 | 0.269 | 0.219 | 0.220 | 0.211 | 0.012 | |
\(Con\) | 0.0002 | 0.001 | − 0.004 | − 0.003 | 0.000 | − 0.001 | − 0.003 | − 0.0001 | |
Certificate/Diploma (= 1) | \(\eta\) | 0.090 | 0.081 | 0.048 | 0.074 | 0.096 | 0.054 | 0.044 | 0.071 |
\(CI\) | − 0.0773 | − 0.11 | − 0.106 | − 0.117 | − 0.109 | − 0.111 | − 0.107 | − 0.007 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0069 | − 0.009 | − 0.005 | − 0.009 | − 0.010 | − 0.006 | − 0.005 | − 0.0005 | |
Year 12 or below (= 1) | \(\eta\) | 0.001 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.001 | − 0.003 | 0.001 |
\(CI\) | 0.1447 | − 0.02 | 0.003 | 0.058 | − 0.051 | − 0.008 | − 0.016 | 0.052 | |
\(Con\) | 0.0001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.0001 | |
Mother’s employment | |||||||||
Part-time employed (= 1) | \(\eta\) | − 0.022 | − 0.015 | − 0.023 | − 0.021 | − 0.012 | − 0.007 | − 0.003 | − 0.012 |
\(CI\) | 0.1049 | 0.08 | 0.042 | 0.018 | − 0.003 | 0.011 | − 0.022 | 0.001 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0023 | − 0.001 | − 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.0000 | |
Unemployed (= 1) | \(\eta\) | 0.012 | − 0.001 | 0.009 | 0.029 | 0.023 | 0.025 | 0.028 | 0.024 |
\(CI\) | − 0.1928 | − 0.25 | − 0.297 | − 0.294 | − 0.344 | − 0.283 | − 0.364 | − 0.028 | |
\(Con\) | − 0.0023 | 0.000 | − 0.003 | − 0.009 | − 0.008 | − 0.007 | − 0.010 | − 0.0007 | |
Sociodemographic | |||||||||
Age | \(\eta\) | − 0.007 | 0.013 | − 0.003 | − 0.002 | − 0.007 | − 0.007 | 0.010 | − 0.002 |
\(CI\) | − 0.0244 | − 0.02 | 0.002 | 0.009 | − 0.008 | 0.000 | − 0.026 | 0.009 | |
\(Con\) | 0.0002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.0000 | |
Gender | |||||||||
Female (= 1) | \(\eta\) | − 0.057 | − 0.082 | − 0.085 | − 0.080 | − 0.074 | − 0.014 | 0.022 | − 0.050 |
\(CI\) | − 0.0082 | − 0.01 | − 0.011 | 0.009 | − 0.002 | 0.012 | 0.013 | − 0.004 | |
\(Con\) | 0.0005 | 0.001 | 0.001 | − 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.0002 | |
Areas of residence | |||||||||
Not accessible regional areas (= 1) | \(\eta\) | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.007 | 0.006 | 0.002 | 0.004 |
\(CI\) | 0.0202 | 0.03 | 0.028 | 0.075 | 0.085 | 0.086 | 0.071 | − 0.004 | |
\(Con\) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.0000 | |
CI of mental health (SDQ) | - | − 0.05 | − 0.055 | − 0.06 | − 0.067 | − 0.06 | − 0.05 | − 0.07 | − 0.0045 |
Total estimated contribution | - | − 0.06 | − 0.06 | − 0.067 | − 0.075 | − 0.063 | − 0.052 | − 0.074 | − 0.005 |