Association between perceived discrimination and relative deprivation
Consistent with previous studies [
11,
15], we observed that migrant adolescents who experienced discrimination in destination cities were more likely to feel relative deprivation. Due to differences in lifestyles, values, and cultural backgrounds, migrant adolescents sometimes encounter (explicit or implicit) social exclusion or discrimination in their urban lives [
6‐
8]. When judging that they were treated unjustly, when compared with their urban or rural counterparts, they might feel anger or dissatisfaction with their current situations, resulting in an increasing sense of relative deprivation [
13,
26]. In summary, a greater perception of discrimination strengthened migrant adolescents’ sense of relative deprivation [
15]. Conversely, when migrant adolescents receive equal treatment, social support, and acceptance in their urban lives, they may gradually integrate into destination cities, which, in turn, reduces their sense of relative deprivation to some extent [
82]. Moreover, prior research confirms the positive and direct association between discrimination and poor or fair self-rated health [
83] and finds that perspective-taking can effectively combat discrimination denial [
84].
Perceived discrimination, locus of control, and relative deprivation
In line with theoretical expectations and previous studies [
53,
56], we observed that locus of control partially mediated the association between perceived discrimination and relative deprivation among migrant adolescents. This indicated that perceived discrimination not only directly affected migrant adolescents’ relative deprivation, it also indirectly affected relative deprivation through external locus of control. According to the analytic model of “internal cause-external cause [
85],” the causes of an outcome can be attributed to the person, external circumstances, or a combination of them [
86]. It is generally believed that external circumstances are conditions of change, while internal causes are the basis for change [
87]. Thus, perceived discrimination can affect relative deprivation by influencing the locus of control of migrant adolescents. These findings imply that migrant adolescents’ external locus of control increases when the perception of discrimination becomes stronger. In other words, migrant adolescents’ locus of control changes, depending on their perceived discrimination. This result can be explained in two ways. First, as new urban residents from rural regions, migrant adolescents’ experiences diminished their ability to exert influence on the people of authority and the environment [
88,
89]. Second, adolescents encountering discrimination in cities might feel that the world is an unfair or unjust place,this, in turn, may increase their external locus of control [
14].
The present study also found an association between external locus of control and relative deprivation, which suggests that migrant adolescents with an external locus of control reported higher levels of relative deprivation. According to the theory of locus of control [
30], as an implicit mental factor, individuals with an external locus of control tend to attribute their outcomes to fate, luck, opportunity, or other external forces. Specifically, migrant adolescents may adopt negative attitudes, emotions, and behaviors to cope with their disadvantaged situations [
72], further deteriorating their poor conditions and strengthening their sense of relative deprivation. In summary, locus of control is an important psychological quality for migrant adolescents’ relative deprivation development.
Moderating effect of duration since migration
Supporting our hypothesis, we observed that the link between external locus of control and relative deprivation was weaker for adolescents with long-term migratory duration than for those with short-term migratory durations. Previous research [
29] indicates that duration since migration is an important protective factor attenuating the influence of external environmental factors (e.g., family SES) on migrant adolescents’ relative deprivation; our observations indicate that internal individual factors (i.e., locus of control) can function similarly.
Lazarus and Folkman [
90] propose that coping involves both cognitive and behavioral responses used by individuals attempting to manage internal and/or external stressors perceived to exceed their personal resources. Considering this theory, migrating from familiar rural districts to unfamiliar urban regions can be seen as remarkably stressful,to cope with this stressor, individuals tend to seek social resources and support. However, children with relatively short migratory durations have had their existing social support networks disrupted very recently, and new social support networks in their new residences have not yet been established. As a result, they might feel relatively deprived of resources, compared with their urban and rural counterparts [
60]. In contrast, migrant adolescents who have lived in the city longer are more likely to have successfully established social support networks (e.g., teachers and peers) and coping resources; therefore, their locus of control may have shifted toward more internal attributions regarding their lives in the city [
64]. In summary, duration since migration indeed appears to have an important protective effect that could weaken the influence of external locus of control on migrant adolescents’ relative deprivation.
However, contrary to our expectation, the direct link between perceived discrimination and relative deprivation was not moderated by duration since migration. It could be argued that time-related effects are related to psychological mechanisms (i.e., locus of control), explaining judgments about relative deprivation, rather than general evaluations of perception of discrimination. In other words, locus of control appeared to be the more proximal variable affecting migrant adolescents’ relative deprivation, while perception of discrimination appeared to be a more distal variable, at least among our study participants. In general, among the many factors that affect individual psychosocial development, environmental factors (e.g., parent–child relationship, peer relationship, academic pressure, and social exclusion) are distal variables, while individual factors (e.g., physiology, personality, emotion, cognition, and execution) are proximal variables [
91]. Distal variables often exert influence on individuals’ psychosocial development through proximal factors. In this study, discrimination (or perceived discrimination) is an environmental factor, while an external locus of control is an individual factor. Therefore, duration since migration moderated the effects of the proximal variable (i.e., locus of control) on relative deprivation, rather than the effects of the distal variable (i.e., perceived discrimination) on relative deprivation. Future studies should examine this uncovered moderating effect among larger samples and/or multiple regions.
Implications and limitations
Our findings have clinical implications for Chinese migrant adolescents who are struggling to adapt to their new surroundings and promote community harmony. First, parents and teachers should guide migrant adolescents to foster the positive attributions of their new urban environment, build coping skills that can increase their internal locus of control, and support them in ways that can improve their status (e.g., encourage their involvement in sports teams, introduce them to more stylish clothes, or highlight their special skills and cultural elements from rural life that city children may not know about). Such positive ways of articulating their emotions, fair treatment, and opportunities for individual growth may reduce the relative deprivation of the adolescent migrant population.
Second, urban communities should work toward a fair and inclusive social atmosphere for all residents and always bear in mind that migrants come in to help build their local economies, through which all residents benefit. Specifically, urban communities should strengthen publicity and report positive typical cases of the migrant population to change the urban residents’ negative attitudes toward them. To address this social concern, Balingue [
92] proposes solidarity as a means of countering the effects of social discrimination and stigma.
Third, city governments and administrators should ensure that changes in household registration are straightforward, so that migrant adolescents can enroll in local schools readily at academic levels appropriate to their current education; further, having local household residency means that they have complete access to higher-level schools and social welfare, which promotes their personal development in their city lives. Finally, government departments and relevant managers should listen to and seriously consider the opinions of the migrant population, formulate practical and feasible policies and measures, and supervise their implementation. Specifically, they should lower the threshold for migrant workers to settle in the city, promulgate laws and regulations to ensure that the children of migrant workers can enter urban public schools smoothly, and regularly issue living allowances and social welfare to migrant workers’ families.
Although our study had a sizable sample, appropriate measures, and robust analytical methods, it also had several limitations. First, it had a cross-sectional design, which could not confirm the causal relations we assumed among the core variables. Thus, future studies should adopt quasi-experimental designs to further examine the relationships and mechanisms between perceived discrimination and relative deprivation among migrant adolescents. Second, although the self-report method has been widely used to assess perceived discrimination and relative deprivation, and although “self” is the best source of information about perceptions, future research should collect data using multiple methods (i.e., objective measures) and informants (e.g., parents, teachers, and peers). Third, although many environmental and individual variables may affect the relationship between perceived discrimination and relative deprivation, we only focused on two: locus of control and duration since migration. Therefore, future research should consider more proximal variables (e.g., coping style, belief in a just world, and group identification) to accurately clarify when and how perceived discrimination influences migrant adolescents’ relative deprivation. Fourth, although this study measured cognitive and affective components of relative deprivation, we did not measure behaviors or behavioral intention components. Future research should therefore use more comprehensive indicators (e.g., cognitive, emotional, and behavioral items) to measure relative deprivation more objectively. Finally, we only selected migrant adolescents from Fujian province in southeast China as participants, which may limit the representativeness of the sample. Therefore, the findings of this study should be interpreted with caution. Future studies should expand the sample size and representation of migrant adolescents to further validate our findings.