Background
Methods
Study design and sampling
Study site and population
Training
Sample and data collection
Laboratorial analyses
Statistics
Results
Nutritional status of children and their feeding practices
Variables | Categories | n | N | Estimated proportion (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Demographic characteristic of children | ||||
Age (in months) | < 6 months | 155 | 948 | 16.4 (14.1–18.8) |
6–23 months | 520 | 948 | 54.9 (51.7–58) | |
24–36 months | 273 | 948 | 28.8 (26–31.8) | |
Gender | Female | 459 | 948 | 48.4 (45.2–51.6) |
Male | 489 | 948 | 51.6 (48.4–54.8) | |
Nutritional status and feeding practices | ||||
Anaemia | No | 527 | 912 | 57.8 (54.6–61) |
IDA | 177 | 912 | 19.4 (17–22.1) | |
Non-IDA | 208 | 912 | 22.8 (20.2–25.6) | |
Zinc deficiency | Yes | 58 | 687 | 8.4 (6.6–10.8) |
Zinc overload | Yes | 165 | 794 | 20.8 (18.1–23.7) |
Wasting | Moderate to severe | 93 | 942 | 9.9 (8.1–11.9) |
Stunting | Moderate to severe | 252 | 943 | 26.7 (24–29.6) |
Underweight | Moderate to severe | 191 | 943 | 20.3 (17.8–22.9) |
Exclusive breastfeeding (< 6 months) | Yesa | 74 | 150 | 49.3 (41.4–57.3) |
Continued breastfeeding (6 to 36 months) | Yesa | 413 | 786 | 52.5 (49–56) |
Minimum Dietary Diversity (6 to 36 months) | Yesa | 165 | 726 | 22.7 (19.8–25.9) |
Non-haeme Iron rich foods (6 to 36 months) | Yesa | 256 | 726 | 35.3 (31.9–38.8) |
Haeme Iron rich foods (6 to 36 months) | Yesa | 550 | 726 | 75.8 (72.5–78.7) |
Feeding frequency (6 to 36 months) | 0–1 times | 73 | 703 | 10.4 (8.3–12.9) |
2–3 times | 389 | 703 | 55.3 (51.6–59) | |
> = 4 times | 241 | 703 | 34.3 (30.9–37.9) | |
Infections and infection preventive practices | ||||
P. falciparum | Yes | 49 | 946 | 5.2 (3.9–6.8) |
At least one intestinal/urogenital parasite | Yes | 127 | 833 | 15.2 (13–17.8) |
A. Lumbricoides | Yes | 30 | 787 | 3.8 (2.7–5.4) |
G. lamblia | Yes | 59 | 783 | 7.5 (5.9–9.6) |
S. haematobium | Yes | 36 | 570 | 6.3 (4.6–8.6) |
Diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks | Yesa | 386 | 938 | 41.2 (38–44.3) |
Inflammation (CRP) | No | 465 | 850 | 54.7 (51.3–58) |
Malarial inflammation | 28 | 850 | 3.3 (2.3–4.7) | |
Non-malarial inflammation | 357 | 850 | 42 (38.7–45.3) | |
Sleeping under the bednet in the previous night | Yes | 391 | 913 | 42.8 (39.7–46.1) |
Treated drinking water | Yes | 685 | 932 | 73.5 (70.6–76.2) |
Main source of drinking water | Unsafe (river, lagoon) | 467 | 927 | 50.4 (47.2–53.6) |
Safe (piped, fountain) | 460 | 927 | 49.6 (46.4–52.8) | |
Main source of water for bath | Unsafe (river, lagoon) | 502 | 796 | 63.1 (59.7–66.3) |
Safe (piped, fountain) | 294 | 796 | 36.9 (33.7–40.3) | |
Place for faecal disposal | Unsafe (open sky) | 327 | 935 | 35 (32–38.1) |
Safe (latrine or buried) | 608 | 935 | 65 (61.9–68) | |
Wearing shoes at evaluation | Yes | 589 | 835 | 70.5 (67.4–73.5) |
Genetic features | ||||
G6PD genotype of females | B/B, A/A, B/A | 264 | 459 | 57.5 (53–62) |
B/A-, A/A-, A−/A- | 195 | 459 | 42.5 (38–47) | |
G6PD genotype of males | B, A | 271 | 479 | 56.6 (52.1–60.9) |
A- | 208 | 479 | 43.4 (39.1–47.9) | |
Sickle cell (HBB genotype) | AA | 629 | 848 | 74.2 (71.1–77) |
AS | 203 | 848 | 23.9 (21.2–26.9) | |
SS | 16 | 848 | 1.9 (1.2–3) |
Infectious state of children and mother-to-children infection preventive practices
Genetic features of children
Characteristics of caregivers
Variables | Categories | n | N | Estimated proportion (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Household characteristics | ||||
Estimated monthly income (AKZ) | < 15,000 | 356 | 602 | 59.1 (55.2–63) |
≥ 15,000 | 246 | 602 | 40.9 (37–44.8) | |
Daily food expenditure (AKZ) | < 1000 | 579 | 871 | 66.5 (63.3–69.5) |
Median = 1000.0; Mean = 1361.2; SD = 2486.5 | ≥ 1000 | 292 | 871 | 33.5 (30.5–36.7) |
Daily water expenditure (AKZ) | < 200 | 286 | 472 | 60.6 (56.1–64.9) |
Median = 200.0; Mean = 368.7; SD = 1095.8 | ≥ 200 | 186 | 472 | 39.4 (35.1–43.9) |
Latrine ownership | Yes | 694 | 933 | 74.4 (71.5–77.1) |
Bednet ownership | Yes | 470 | 929 | 50.6 (47.4–53.8) |
Ownership of land for agriculture | Yes | 372 | 927 | 40.1 (37–43.3) |
Breeding or hunting animals | Yes | 246 | 924 | 26.6 (23.9–29.6) |
Number of residents | <= 3 | 137 | 948 | 14.5 (12.4–16.8) |
Median = 6.0; Mean = 5.9; SD = 2.5 | 4–5 | 335 | 948 | 35.3 (32.4–38.4) |
6–7 | 262 | 948 | 27.6 (24.9–30.6) | |
> = 8 | 214 | 948 | 22.6 (20–25.3) | |
Number of children under 5 years old | None | 170 | 680 | 25 (21.9–28.4) |
Median = 1.0; Mean = 1.2; SD = 1.2 | 1 | 330 | 680 | 48.5 (44.8–52.3) |
> = 2 | 180 | 680 | 26.5 (23.3–29.9) | |
Characteristics of the caregivers | ||||
Age | < 20 years | 150 | 861 | 17.4 (15–20.1) |
Median = 27.0; Mean = 27.6; SD = 8.5 | 20–39 years | 643 | 861 | 74.7 (71.7–77.5) |
> 40 years | 68 | 861 | 7.9 (6.3–9.9) | |
Gender | Male | 35 | 828 | 4.2 (3.1–5.8) |
Female | 793 | 828 | 95.8 (94.2–96.9) | |
Marital status | Married or living with partner | 660 | 817 | 80.8 (77.9–83.3) |
Single, divorced or widow | 157 | 817 | 19.2 (16.7–22.1) | |
School frequency | Yes | 701 | 804 | 87.2 (84.7–89.3) |
Education level achieved | Primary level | 238 | 655 | 36.3 (32.7–40.1) |
Basic level | 330 | 655 | 50.4 (46.6–54.2) | |
High school to university | 87 | 655 | 13.3 (10.9–16.1) | |
Number of children under 5 years old in the household | <=2 | 344 | 813 | 42.3 (39–45.7) |
Median = 3.0; Mean = 3.3; SD = 2.0 | 3–4 | 265 | 813 | 32.6 (29.5–35.9) |
> = 5 | 204 | 813 | 25.1 (22.2–28.2) | |
Nutritional status of mothersa | Eutrophic (BMI 18.50–24.99 kg/m2) | 478 | 801 | 59.7 (56.2–63) |
Underweight (BMI < 18.50 kg/m2) | 50 | 801 | 6.2 (4.8–8.1) | |
Overweight and obese (BMI > 25 kg/m2) | 273 | 801 | 34.1 (30.9–37.4) |
Factors associated with IDA and non-IDA
Independent variables | Non anemic | IDA | p | Non-IDA | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (IC95%) | OR (IC95%) | |||||
Total population (1) | ||||||
Age | < 6 months | 1 | Ref | Ref | ||
6–23 months | 7.4 (2.87, 19.11) | < 0.001 | 0.7 (0.43, 1.15) | 0.166 | ||
24–36 months | 2.0 (0.73, 5.53) | 0.180 | 0.5 (0.27, 0.80) | 0.006 | ||
Children’s gender | Female | 1 | Ref | Ref | ||
Male | 2.0 (1.32, 2.91) | 0.001 | 1.3 (0.87, 1.81) | 0.216 | ||
Zinc | Normal | 1 | Ref | Ref | ||
Deficiency | 1.6 (0.67, 3.61) | 0.306 | 3.2 (1.64, 6.25) | 0.001 | ||
Overload | 0.8 (0.47, 1.26) | 0.300 | 0.6 (0.36, 0.96) | 0.033 | ||
P. falciparum | No | 1 | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 1.3 (0.26, 6.81) | 0.733 | 3.1 (1.05, 9.42) | 0.041 | ||
Inflammation | No | 1 | Ref | Ref | ||
Malarial Inflammation | 3.8 (0.56, 25.70) | 0.174 | 1.8 (0.44, 7.36) | 0.415 | ||
Non-malarial Inflammation | 2.4 (1.62, 3.65) | < 0.001 | 1.3 (0.90, 1.94) | 0.157 | ||
Sickle cell (HBB genotype) | AA | 1 | Ref | Ref | ||
AS | 1.00 (0.59, 1.55) | 0.853 | 1.6 (1.03, 2.35) | 0.035 | ||
SS | 1.2 (0.10, 13.54) | 0.904 | 16.6 (3.56, 77.04) | < 0.001 | ||
Children under 6 month (2) | ||||||
Age | Continuous variable | 1 | – | – | 1.3 (1.02, 1.57) | 0.031 |
Normal | 1 | – | – | Ref | ||
Zinc | Deficiency | – | – | 1.1 (0.20, 5.85) | 0.927 | |
Overload | – | – | 0.3 (0.12, 0.73) | 0.008 | ||
Children 6 to 23 months (3) | ||||||
Gender | Female | 1 | ||||
Male | 2.1 (1.34, 3.27) | 0.001 | 1.3 (0.78, 2.10) | 0.321 | ||
Continued breastfeeding | No | 1 | ||||
Yes | 1.9 (1.11, 3.13) | 0.019 | 1.6 (0.92, 2.90) | 0.095 | ||
Zinc | Normal | 1 | ||||
Deficiency | 1.4 (0.42, 4.48) | 0.604 | 4.4 (1.55, 12.28) | 0.005 | ||
Overload | 0.8 (0.44, 1.30) | 0.307 | 0.7 (0.35, 1.27) | 0.221 | ||
Inflammation | No | 1 | ||||
Malarial Inflammation | 2.3 (0.43, 11.95) | 0.331 | 9.1 (2.34, 35.71) | 0.001 | ||
Non-malarial Inflammation | 2.2 (1.42, 3.47) | < 0.001 | 1.5 (0.90, 2.48) | 0.119 | ||
Children 24 to 36 months (4) | ||||||
Age | Continuous variable | 1 | 0.9 (0.77, 0.98) | 0.020 | 1.0 (0.955, 1.13) | 0.408 |
Zinc | Normal | 1 | ||||
Deficiency | 1.4 (0.38, 5.28) | 0.609 | 3.6 (1.41, 9.09) | 0.007 | ||
Overload | 1.0 (0.26, 4.14) | 0.960 | 0.7 (0.23, 2.35) | 0.605 | ||
Stunting | Normal | 1 | ||||
Moderate to severe | 2.6 (1.09, 6.20) | 0.031 | 1.2 (0.60, 2.23) | 0.675 | ||
Inflammation | No | |||||
Malarial Inflammation | 1 | 18.2 (3.55, 92.76) | < 0.001 | 2.3 (0.54, 9.94) | 0.262 | |
Non-malarial Inflammation | 4.0 (1.45, 11.01) | 0.007 | 0.4 (0.21, 0.90) | 0.024 |