Introduction
Methods
Participants
TOTAL | UIC | UTSW | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | ASD | Control | ASD | Control | ASD | |
Gripping (Force test) | ||||||
N | 74 (20 F) | 76 (11 F) | 41 (10 F) | 33 (6 F) | 33 (10 F) | 43 (5 F) |
Age | 13.8 (6.9) | 12.2 (5.3) | 14.3 (6.0) | 14.6 (5.7) | 13.0 (7.9) | 10.3 (4.0) |
Handedness (R/L) | 66/5 | 61/14 | 39/2 | 30/3 | 30/3 | 32/11 |
Verbal IQ | 111 (16) | 96 (18)* | 110 (19) | 99 (19) | 113 (10) | 92 (15) |
Nonverbal IQ | 107 (15) | 100 (18)* | 105 (14) | 99 (18) | 108 (15) | 100 (17) |
ADOS CSS | – | 7.05 (1.87) | – | 6.80 (2.00) | – | 7.26 (1.75) |
Gripping (Gain test) | ||||||
N | 59 (14 F) | 45 (7 F) | 40 (10 F) | 33 (6 F) | 19 (5 F) | 12 (2 F) |
Age | 13.0 (6.6) | 13.2 (5.7) | 14.7 (6.1) | 14.8 (5.7) | 9.9 (6.5) | 9.1 (3.3) |
Handedness (R/L) | 50/5 | 37/6 | 37/3 | 30/3 | 16/3 | 9/3 |
Verbal IQ | 111 (17) | 98 (19)* | 110 (19) | 100 (20) | 113 (12) | 86 (14) |
Nonverbal IQ | 106 (16) | 100 (19) | 105 (15) | 100 (18) | 107 (19) | 101 (23) |
ADOS CSS | – | 6.81 (1.85) | – | 6.65 (2.02) | – | 7.25 (1.21) |
Eye movement (VGS test) | ||||||
N | 82 (19 F) | 88 (14 F) | 55 (13 F) | 61 (12 F) | 27 (7 F) | 27 (3 F) |
Age | 14.8 (6.8) | 12.8 (5.1)* | 14.9 (6.3) | 13.6 (5.2) | 14.5 (7.8) | 11.1 (4.2) |
Handedness (R/L) | 75/4 | 74/12 | 50/3 | 56/4 | 25/1 | 18/8 |
Verbal IQ | 110 (13) | 97 (18)* | 109 (16) | 99 (18) | 114 (11) | 92 (18) |
Nonverbal IQ | 106 (13.5) | 101 (18)* | 104 (12.6) | 101 (18) | 110 (15) | 100 (19) |
ADOS CSS | – | 6.88 (2.09) | – | 6.84 (2.21) | – | 7.00 (1.78) |
Grip + VGS tests | ||||||
N | 45 (13 F) | 48 (9 F) | 25 (6 F) | 25 (6 F) | 20 (7 F) | 23 (3 F) |
Age | 15.0 (6.9) | 13.3 (5.3) | 15.5 (6.1) | 15.0 (5.6) | 14.5 (7.8) | 11.3 (4.1) |
Precision grip testing
Oculomotor testing
Data processing
Precision grip data
Oculomotor data
Clinical measures
Statistical analyses
Results
Maximum voluntary contraction
Reaction time of initial action output
Primary pulse reaction time (15% MVC)
Saccade latency
Trial-To-Trial variability of saccade latency
Accuracy of initial action output
Primary pulse accuracy (15% MVC)
Saccade gain
Variability of feedback-guided motor adjustments
Force test: grip force coefficient of variation (CoV)
Gain test: grip force coefficient of variation (CoV)
Saccade gain variability
Time-dependent structure of force output
Force test: grip force approximate entropy (ApEn)
Gain test: grip force approximate entropy (ApEn)
Inter-correlation of sensorimotor behaviors
Reaction time—initial action output
Primary pulse reaction time | Saccade latency | Latency variability | |
---|---|---|---|
Primary pulse absolute error | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.042 | − 0.068 | − 0.068 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.757 | 0.659 | 0.656 |
N | 56 | 45 | 45 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.05 | − 0.117 | − 0.163 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.693 | 0.412 | 0.253 |
N | 66 | 51 | 51 |
Absolute error of saccade gain | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.121 | − 0.011 | 0.392* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.429 | 0.936 | 0.003 |
N | 45 | 55 | 55 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.064 | − 0.094 | 0.169 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.651 | 0.49 | 0.213 |
N | 52 | 56 | 56 |
Reaction time—feedback-guided motor adjustments
Primary pulse reaction time | Saccade latency | Latency variability | |
---|---|---|---|
Coefficient of variation—15% MVC | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.18 | 0.3 | 0.2 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.184 | 0.026 | 0.142 |
N | 56 | 55 | 55 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.345* | 0.189 | 0.127 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.004 | 0.163 | 0.349 |
N | 68 | 56 | 56 |
Coefficient of variation—45% MVC | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.203 | 0.327 | 0.285 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.149 | 0.017 | 0.039 |
N | 52 | 53 | 53 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.348* | − 0.01 | 0.067 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.005 | 0.943 | 0.625 |
N | 65 | 55 | 55 |
Coefficient of variation—85% MVC | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.125 | 0.218 | 0.095 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.381 | 0.121 | 0.501 |
N | 51 | 52 | 52 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.049 | 0.067 | 0.214 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.704 | 0.637 | 0.127 |
N | 63 | 52 | 52 |
Coefficient of variation—0.06 degrees | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.049 | 0.187 | 0.144 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.763 | 0.254 | 0.38 |
N | 41 | 39 | 39 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.253 | 0.181 | 0.043 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.163 | 0.32 | 0.817 |
N | 32 | 32 | 32 |
Coefficient of variation—0.62 degrees | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.083 | 0.359 | 0.143 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.6 | 0.023 | 0.38 |
N | 42 | 40 | 40 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.259 | 0.114 | 0.241 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.122 | 0.52 | 0.17 |
N | 37 | 34 | 34 |
Coefficient of variation—21.13 degrees | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.13 | 0.414*† | 0.19 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.41 | 0.008 | 0.24 |
N | 42 | 40 | 40 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.208 | − 0.046 | − 0.068 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.245 | 0.808 | 0.723 |
N | 33 | 30 | 30 |
Saccade gain variability | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | 0.216 | − 0.046 | 0.255 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.155 | 0.74 | 0.06 |
N | 45 | 55 | 55 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.074 | 0.057 | 0.182 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.605 | 0.674 | 0.18 |
N | 51 | 56 | 56 |
Initial action output—feedback-guided motor adjustments
Primary pulse absolute error | Absolute error of saccade gain | |
---|---|---|
Coefficient of variation—15% MVC | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.315 | 0.08 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.018 | 0.561 |
N | 56 | 55 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.128 | 0.06 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.307 | 0.655 |
N | 66 | 57 |
Coefficient of variation—45% MVC | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.141 | 0.244 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.32 | 0.078 |
N | 52 | 53 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.013 | 0.297 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.917 | 0.026 |
N | 63 | 56 |
Coefficient of variation—85% MVC | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.066 | 0.139 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.648 | 0.327 |
N | 51 | 52 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.045 | 0.357* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.731 | 0.009 |
N | 61 | 53 |
Coefficient of variation—0.06 degrees | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.16 | 0.028 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.317 | 0.867 |
N | 41 | 39 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.191 | 0.226 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.295 | 0.213 |
N | 32 | 32 |
Coefficient of variation—0.62 degrees | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.312 | 0.004 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.044 | 0.981 |
N | 42 | 40 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.246 | 0.301 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.148 | 0.084 |
N | 36 | 34 |
Coefficient of variation—21.13 degrees | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.17 | − 0.021 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.281 | 0.9 |
N | 42 | 40 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.368 | 0.045 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.038 | 0.812 |
N | 32 | 30 |
Saccade gain variability | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.301 | .676* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.045 | < .001 |
N | 45 | 55 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.039 | .614* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.788 | < .001 |
N | 51 | 56 |
Reaction time—time-dependent structure
Primary pulse reaction time | Saccade latency | Latency variability | |
---|---|---|---|
Approximate entropy—15% MVC | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.438* | − 0.202 | − 0.218 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.001 | 0.14 | 0.11 |
N | 56 | 55 | 55 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.448* | − 0.125 | − 0.167 |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | 0.359 | 0.22 |
N | 68 | 56 | 56 |
Approximate entropy—45% MVC | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.465* | − 0.283 | − 0.474* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.001 | 0.04 | < .001 |
N | 52 | 53 | 53 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.397* | − 0.19 | − 0.174 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.001 | 0.165 | 0.203 |
N | 65 | 55 | 55 |
Approximate entropy—85% MVC | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.470* | − 0.243 | − 0.262 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.001 | 0.083 | 0.061 |
N | 51 | 52 | 52 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.305 | − 0.133 | − 0.151 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.015 | 0.348 | 0.284 |
N | 63 | 52 | 52 |
Approximate ENTROPY—0.06 degrees | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.292 | − 0.204 | − 0.015 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.064 | 0.214 | 0.93 |
N | 41 | 39 | 39 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.199 | − 0.155 | − 0.316 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.276 | 0.396 | 0.078 |
N | 32 | 32 | 32 |
Approximate entropy—0.62 degrees | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.223 | − 0.225 | − 0.02 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.155 | 0.162 | 0.905 |
N | 42 | 40 | 40 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.143 | − 0.097 | − 0.25 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.398 | 0.584 | 0.154 |
N | 37 | 34 | 34 |
Approximate entropy—21.13 degrees | |||
Control | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.224 | − 0.286 | − 0.084 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.153 | 0.073 | 0.604 |
N | 42 | 40 | 40 |
ASD | |||
Pearson correlation | − 0.21 | 0.02 | 0.15 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.241 | 0.916 | 0.429 |
N | 33 | 30 | 30 |
Initial action output—time-dependent structure
Primary pulse absolute error | Absolute error of saccade gain | |
---|---|---|
Approximate entropy—15% MVC | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.034 | − 0.414* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.805 | 0.002 |
N | 56 | 55 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.159 | − 0.123 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.203 | 0.36 |
N | 66 | 57 |
Approximate entropy—45% MVC | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.14 | − .526*† |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.324 | < .001 |
N | 52 | 53 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.047 | − 0.105 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.717 | 0.441 |
N | 63 | 56 |
Approximate entropy—85% MVC | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.123 | − .378* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.39 | 0.006 |
N | 51 | 52 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | − 0.027 | − 0.25 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.838 | 0.071 |
N | 61 | 53 |
Approximate entropy—0.06 degrees | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.141 | − 0.275 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.38 | 0.09 |
N | 41 | 39 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.361 | − 0.343 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.042 | 0.055 |
N | 32 | 32 |
Approximate entropy—0.62 degrees | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.337 | − 0.289 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.029 | 0.071 |
N | 42 | 40 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.288 | − 0.207 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.088 | 0.24 |
N | 36 | 34 |
Approximate entropy—21.13 degrees | ||
Control | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.095 | − 0.225 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.549 | 0.163 |
N | 42 | 40 |
ASD | ||
Pearson correlation | 0.227 | 0.04 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.212 | 0.834 |
N | 32 | 30 |
Feedback-guided motor adjustments—time-dependent structure
Coefficient of variation—15% MVC | Coefficient of variation—45% MVC | Coefficient of variation—85% MVC | Coefficient of variation—0.06 degrees | Coefficient of variation—0.62 degrees | Coefficient of variation—21.13 degrees | Saccade gain variability | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Approximate entropy—15% MVC | |||||||
Control | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.418* | − 0.572* | − 0.420* | − 0.265 | − 0.363* | − 0.398* | − 0.412* |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.057 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.002 |
N | 72 | 68 | 66 | 52 | 55 | 54 | 55 |
ASD | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.652* | − 0.615* | − 0.396* | − 0.673* | − 0.529* | − 0.332* | − 0.272 |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | < .001 | 0.001 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.048 | 0.043 |
N | 75 | 71 | 69 | 37 | 42 | 36 | 56 |
Approximate entropy—45% MVC | |||||||
Control | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.416* | − 0.710* | − 0.518* | − 0.538* | − 0.468* | − 0.501* | − 0.479* |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.001 | < .001 | < .001 |
N | 68 | 68 | 66 | 48 | 51 | 50 | 53 |
ASD | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.473* | − 0.715* | − 0.594* | − 0.519* | − 0.350 | − 0.568* | − 0.307 |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.001 | 0.025 | < .001 | 0.022 |
N | 71 | 71 | 68 | 36 | 41 | 35 | 55 |
Approximate entropy—85% MVC | |||||||
Control | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.342* | − 0.553* | − 0.669* | − 0.380* | − 0.344 | − 0.319 | − 0.412* |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.005 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.009 | 0.015 | 0.027 | 0.002 |
N | 66 | 66 | 66 | 46 | 49 | 48 | 52 |
ASD | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.285* | − 0.471* | − 0.516* | − 0.365 | − 0.139 | − 0.27 | − 0.258 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.018 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.037 | 0.405 | 0.135 | 0.064 |
N | 69 | 68 | 69 | 33 | 38 | 32 | 52 |
Approximate entropy—0.06 degrees | |||||||
Control | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.475* | − 0.583* | − 0.562* | − 0.535* | − 0.451* | − 0.381* | − 0.165 |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.001 | 0.006 | 0.316 |
N | 52 | 48 | 46 | 52 | 52 | 51 | 39 |
ASD | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.585* | − 0.487* | − 0.586* | − 0.645* | − 0.519* | − 0.359* | − 0.048 |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | 0.003 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.001 | 0.047 | 0.795 |
N | 37 | 36 | 33 | 37 | 37 | 31 | 32 |
Approximate entropy—0.62 degrees | |||||||
Control | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.540* | − 0.618* | − 0.509* | − 0.496* | − 0.613* | − 0.482* | − 0.137 |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.399 |
N | 55 | 51 | 49 | 52 | 55 | 54 | 40 |
ASD | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.735* | − 0.524* | − 0.466* | − 0.666* | − 0.746* | − 0.510* | − 0.25 |
p-value (2-tailed) | < .001 | < .001 | 0.003 | < .001 | < .001 | 0.001 | 0.154 |
N | 42 | 41 | 38 | 37 | 42 | 36 | 34 |
Approximate entropy—21.13 degrees | |||||||
Control | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.419* | − 0.548* | − 0.282 | − 0.378* | − 0.412* | − 0.670* | − 0.074 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.002 | < .001 | 0.052 | 0.006 | 0.002 | < .001 | 0.652 |
N | 54 | 50 | 48 | 51 | 54 | 54 | 40 |
ASD | |||||||
Pearson correlation | − 0.407* | − 0.754* | − 0.488* | − 0.436 | − 0.292 | − 0.800* | − 0.039 |
p-value (2-tailed) | 0.014 | < .001 | 0.005 | 0.014 | 0.084 | < .001 | 0.84 |
N | 36 | 35 | 32 | 31 | 36 | 36 | 30 |