Introduction
Material and methods
Setting and procedure
Study population
Study design
Measures
Assessment of trauma
Pandemic exposure
Threat experience
Financial and job problems
Child behavior checklist (CBCL)
Chronic illness and psychological treatment before the COVID-19 pandemic
Posttraumatic growth (PTG)
Statistical analysis
Results
Factor analysis of mixed data and hierarchical cluster analysis
Children’s characteristics of the 2-cluster solution
Variable | “No-risk” N = 505 | “High-risk” N = 247 | χ2 | F | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M N | SD % | M N | SD % | |||
Gender (girls) | 251 | 49.7 | 131 | 53.0 | 0.74 | |
Age | 9.81 | 1.65 | 10.07 | 1.75 | 4.18* | |
Nationality: Southern Tyrol | 227 | 45.0 | 81 | 32.8 | 10.14** | |
Time point of measurements (waves) with five different samples drawn | 26.0*** | |||||
March 2020 | 140 | 70.7 | 58 | 29.3 | ||
December 2020 | 133 | 58.8 | 93 | 41.2 | ||
June 2021 | 71 | 61.7 | 44 | 38.3 | ||
December 2021 | 51 | 63.0 | 30 | 37.0 | ||
June 2022 | 110 | 83.3 | 22 | 16.7 | ||
Psychological treatment before COVID-19 (yes) | 4 | 0.8 | 31 | 12.6 | 51.68*** | |
Chronic Illness before COVID-19 (yes) | 16 | 3.2 | 16 | 6.5 | 4.46* | |
Fear of getting COVID-19 (yes) | 87 | 17.2 | 172 | 69.6 | 201.77*** | |
Fear someone in family is getting COVID-19 (yes) | 224 | 44.4 | 220 | 89.1 | 137.13*** | |
Fear of dying of COVID-19 (yes) | 9 | 1.8 | 105 | 42.5 | 213.93*** | |
Fear someone in family is dying of COVID-19 (yes) | 135 | 26.7 | 211 | 85.4 | 230.02*** | |
Fear total score | 0.23 | 0.26 | 0.72 | 0.28 | 572.33*** | |
Child ha COVID-19 (yes) | 106 | 21.0 | 57 | 23.1 | 0.43 | |
Someone in family had COVID-19 (yes) | 208 | 41.2 | 131 | 53.0 | 9.41** | |
Someone in family was in hospital due to COVID-19 (yes) | 17 | 3.4 | 31 | 12.6 | 23.41*** | |
Someone in family died due to COVID-19 (yes) | 4 | 0.8 | 11 | 4.5 | 11.38** | |
Exposure total score | 14.87 | 22.36 | 26.30 | 35.57 | 28.83⁎⁎⁎ | |
Financial problems in family due to COVID-19 (yes) | 52 | 10.3 | 66 | 26.7 | 33.82*** | |
Mom or dad have no work parents (yes) | 30 | 5.9 | 42 | 17.0 | 23.45*** | |
CATS trauma total score | 6.69 | 5.13 | 21.75 | 10.09 | 736.06*** | |
Normal (0–15) | 460 | 91.0 | 63 | 26.0 | 363.32*** | |
Moderate (15–20) | 36 | 7.0 | 56 | 23.0 | ||
Clinically relevant (≥ 21) | 9 | 2.0 | 128 | 52.0 | ||
CATS re-experiencing trauma | 1.44 | 1.50 | 5.56 | 3.36 | 539.26*** | |
CATS avoidance | 0.47 | 0.92 | 2.42 | 1.67 | 427.06*** | |
CATS negative emotions | 2.05 | 2.25 | 6.72 | 4.19 | 395.13*** | |
CATS arousal | 2.73 | 2.36 | 7.04 | 3.28 | 423.50*** |
Changes in child-reported trauma, threat and exposure over time at the group level
Differences in parent-reported trauma, psychopathology, worry, and financial and job problems
Variable | No risk | High-risk | χ2(4) | F | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M (N) | SD % | M N | SD % | |||
Threat of getting COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 403 | 68 | 24.5 | 81 | 64.3 | 58.69*** | |
Threat someone in family is getting COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 403 | 134 | 48.2 | 109 | 87.2 | 39.19*** | |
Threat of dying of COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 399 | 19 | 6.6 | 37 | 32.7 | 45.73*** | |
Threat someone in family is dying of COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 384 | 60 | 22.2 | 85 | 74.6 | 93.43*** | |
Child had COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 442 | 62 | 20.1 | 33 | 24.8 | 0.27 | |
Someone in family had COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 442 | 132 | 42.7 | 79 | 59.4 | 10.37** | |
Someone in family was in hospital due to COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 442 | 10 | 3.2 | 12 | 9.0 | 6.58* | |
Someone in family died due to COVID-19 parents (yes), N = 442 | 6 | 1.9 | 6 | 4.5 | 2.32 | |
Exposure total score parents, N = 430 | 113.56 | 17.34 | 121.14 | 22.53 | 14.21*** | |
Our family had to borrow money from the bank parents (yes), N = 292 | 2 | 1.0 | 7 | 7.7 | 9.41** | |
Our family has less money to buy things parents (yes), N = 292 | 24 | 11.9 | 13 | 14.3 | 0.31 | |
Mom or dad have changed work parents (yes), N = 292 | 15 | 7.5 | 12 | 13.2 | 2.45 | |
Mom or dad have no work parents (yes), N = 292 | 18 | 9.0 | 13 | 14.3 | 1.88 | |
Alcohol problem in family parents (yes), N = 291 | 2 | 1.0 | 1 | 1.1 | 0.01 | |
CATS trauma total score parents N = 418 | 4.97 | 5.84 | 13.56 | 10.49 | 114.53*** | |
CATS re-experiencing trauma parents, N = 418 | 0.87 | 1.54 | 2.82 | 2.85 | 81.70*** | |
CATS avoidance parents, N = 418 | 0.36 | 0.93 | 1.18 | 1.40 | 50.68*** | |
CATS negative emotions parents, N = 418 | 1.61 | 2.53 | 4.54 | 4.24 | 77.43*** | |
CATS arousal parents, N = 418 | 2.13 | 2.25 | 5.01 | 3.57 | 99.53*** | |
CBCL total score parents, N = 437 | 26.55 | 25.04 | 56.45 | 36.16 | 99.36*** | |
CBCL anxious depressed parents, N = 437 | 2.58 | 3.18 | 6.48 | 5.33 | 89.90*** | |
CBCL withdrawn depressed parents, N = 437 | 1.48 | 2.24 | 4.54 | 3.05 | 62.38*** | |
CBCL somatic complaints parents, N = 437 | 1.26 | 3.32 | 2.21 | 3.42 | 56.49*** | |
CBCL attention problems parents, N = 437 | 3.32 | 3.37 | 6.59 | 4.40 | 71.72*** | |
CBCL social problems parents, N = 437 | 3.29 | 5.85 | 7.61 | 8.69 | 36.86*** | |
CBCL aggressive behavior parents, N = 437 | 4.79 | 4.93 | 8.71 | 6.69 | 46.83*** | |
CBCL internalizing parents, N = 437 | 5.32 | 6.52 | 13.35 | 10.30 | 96.34*** | |
CBCL externalizing parents, N = 437 | 9.31 | 9.59 | 16.94 | 12.99 | 46.83*** | |
Post-traumatic growth (PTG) parents, N = 359 | 197 | 81.1 | 83 | 71.6 | 4.14* |
Parent-reported variables | Risk of being in the “high risk” cluster | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nagelkerk’sche R2 | OR | 95% CI | p | ||
Threat of the child to get COVID-19 (n = 402) | 0.21 | 4.93 | 3.09 | 7.86 | < 0.001 |
Threat someone in the family gets COVID-19 (n = 402) | 0.23 | 7.56 | 4.11 | 13.52 | < 0.001 |
Threat of dying of COVID-19 (n = 398) | 0.18 | 6.31 | 3.38 | 11.76 | < 0.001 |
Threat someone in family will die due to COVID-19 (n = 383) | 0.33 | 9.60 | 5.71 | 16.12 | < 0.001 |
Child was COVID-19 sick, N = 441 | 0.05 | 1.13 | 0.70 | 1.86 | 0.635 |
Someone in family had COVID-19, N = 441 | 0.07 | 1.73 | 1.13 | 2.65 | 0.011 |
Someone in family was in hospital due to COVID-19, N = 441 | 0.07 | 2.84 | 1.16 | 6.99 | 0.023 |
Someone in family died due to COVID-19, N = 441 | 0.07 | 4.53 | 1.34 | 15.37 | 0.015 |
Exposure total score, N = 429 | 0.10 | 1.02 | 1.00 | 1.03 | 0.007 |
Alcohol problems in the family (n = 290) | 0.05 | 0.88 | 0.07 | 10.92 | 0.923 |
Family had to borrow money from the bank (n = 291) | 0.09 | 8.78 | 1.73 | 44.56 | 0.009 |
Family had less money to buy things (n = 291) | 0.06 | 1.25 | 0.59 | 2.63 | 0.561 |
Mom or Dad had no job any more (n = 291) | 0.06 | 1.75 | 0.80 | 3.84 | 0.161 |
CATS trauma total score (n = 417) | 0.30 | 1.14 | 1.10 | 1.17 | < 0.001 |
CATS re-experiencing (n = 417) | 0.24 | 1.52 | 1.35 | 1.71 | < 0.001 |
CATS avoidance (n = 417) | 0.17 | 1.81 | 1.49 | 2.20 | < 0.001 |
CATS negative emotions (n = 417) | 0.23 | 1.29 | 1.20 | 1.38 | < 0.001 |
CATS arousal (n = 417) | 0.27 | 1.39 | 1.28 | 1.51 | < 0.001 |
CBCL internalizing (n = 436) | 0.26 | 1.12 | 1.09 | 1.15 | < 0.001 |
CBCL anxious/depressed (n = 436) | 0.25 | 1.24 | 1.17 | 1.32 | < 0.001 |
CBCL withdrawn/depressed (n = 436) | 0.19 | 1.33 | 1.22 | 1.45 | < 0.001 |
CBCL somatic complaints (n = 436) | 0.18 | 1.31 | 1.19 | 1.43 | < 0.001 |
CBCL social problems (n = 436) | 0.15 | 1.01 | 1.06 | 1.12 | < 0.001 |
CBCL attention problems (n = 436) | 0.21 | 1.22 | 1.15 | 1.30 | < 0.001 |
CBCL aggressive behavior (n = 436) | 0.16 | 1.12 | 1.08 | 1.16 | < 0.001 |
CBCL total score (n = 436) | 0.26 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.04 | < 0.001 |
Post-traumatic growth (PTG) (n = 359) | 0.05 | 0.62 | 0.37 | 1.05 | 0.074 |
Discussion
Summary of findings
Comparison with other studies
Prediction of the trauma high-risk cluster
Changes in traumatic symptoms over time on a group level
Clinical implications
Strengths and limitations
Conclusions
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threat that someone in the family gets sick or dies because of COVID-19,
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child being exposed to a family member in hospital or to the death of a family member due to COVID-19,
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high CATS-trauma score levels and CBCL internalizing symptoms (anxiety, depression),
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posttraumatic growth, and
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parents having to borrow money from the bank due to COVID-19.